Lived Experience of Addicted Women about the Feminization of Addiction
Subject Areas : Social issues and injuries related to women and the family
akbar Talebpour
1
,
fatemeh darvishi
2
1 - Associate Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences and Economics, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
2 - M.A in Sociology, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
Keywords: Addiction, Social Despair, Grounded Theory, Feminization, Social Exclusion.,
Abstract :
Lived Experience of Addicted Women about
the Feminization of Addiction
Akbar Talebpour*
Fatemeh Darvishi**
The increased presence of women in society, in addition to its favorable opportunities, also brought social harms. Observing women smoking cigarettes and other drugs in public is a sign of feminization of addiction, which has been studied in this study using grounded theory to produce a local theory of feminization of addiction. The target population of the study was women involved in addiction in Tehran, and twenty of these people were interviewed as study subjects. The sampling method was purposeful and snowball due to the lack of access to the population. The research data collection technique were in-depth and semi-structured interviews. Strauss and Corbin coding was used to analyze the data in the form of open, axial, and selective coding. The results of the study showed that the underlying conditions of economic deprivation, dysfunctional family, and cultural deprivation, along with the causal conditions of violence, the experience of loss and high risk-taking, and the intervening conditions of easy access, pure friends, and low cost of deviation, play a very significant role in the feminization of addiction. This ultimately entails consequences such as loss of social and human capital, lack of social participation, illness, social despair, and social exclusion. Addicted women used strategies of denial, justification, and conflict with society to avoid social exclusion. Social frustration and despair have exacerbated women's addiction and led them to conflict with their families and society. Such conflict can become a major source of aggression and resentment towards society, which is very harmful.
Keywords: Addiction, Social Despair, Grounded Theory, Feminization, Social Exclusion.
Introduction
The study and investigation of women's addiction have been neglected and hidden for several reasons, including their avoidance of visiting addiction treatment centers and fear of the labels and stigmas that society places on addicted women (Barabadi et al., 2018: 235). According to the results of research conducted in the field of addiction, addicted women have been placed under the main shell of addiction and the reasons for this group's addiction have not been given serious attention. In addition, today, addiction is considered a social figure and gesture and has become normal among women, which is increasing day by day in a metropolis like Tehran. This city has provided a suitable platform for women's addiction due to its vastness and anonymity. Discovering the reasons for the tendency towards addiction from the perspective of addicted women and identifying the underlying, causal and interfering reasons for women's addiction from the perspective of the affected individuals can create new scientific approaches to the subject under study and clarify the strategies and consequences of addiction of addicted women from the perspective of these individuals. Therefore, the present study seeks to search for the backgrounds, causal conditions and interfering conditions leading to the formation of women's addiction from the perspective of the target group and to address the strategies and consequences of women's addiction. The importance and necessity of studying in this field is obvious and it is necessary to say that studies of this kind, in addition to producing indigenous theory in the field of the subject under study, will also help social policymakers in dealing with this phenomenon.
Theoretical Framework
Previous studies have examined women's addiction using quantitative methods and have tried to explain women's addiction using addiction theories and discuss the factors affecting this phenomenon. It is obvious that in these studies, women's addiction is not given serious attention from the perspective of addicted women and is neglected. In view of this, the difference between the present study and previous studies is in paying attention to addiction from the perspective of the target community and from the perspective of women by using a qualitative method and, in fact, the method of empathetic introspection, so that by using the experiences of these people, a better attitude towards the phenomenon under study can be found and solutions tailored to the problems of this group can be presented.
According to Agnew's structural pressure theory, there are three general sources of pressure: failure in valuable situations, failure to achieve goals such as academic and career positions, etc., and negative motivations that experience bitter and fragile relationships such as unsuccessful relationships in marriage or the bitter experience of separation, divorce in the family environment or undesirable relationships or the loss of loved ones, etc. can lead to women's addiction tendencies; In a way, women turn to alternatives to escape the pressures they face, one of which is addiction (Siegel, 2016: 159 and Alivardinia et al., 2007: 93).According to Blau's theory of relative deprivation, in a society where the economic and social balance is in the hands of the wealthy class, people from lower classes compare themselves with the wealthy classes, which leads to a sense of deprivation and a sense of injustice in them, and increases their distrust. However, since the opportunity for progress through legitimate criteria is closed, a feeling of inability to achieve goals arises, which leads to aggression and drug addiction (Siegel, 2016: 142).
According to the unequal opportunity theory of Klouward & Ohlin, people from lower social classes are more likely to be driven towards addiction and deviant behavior because they believe that these people are under pressure due to the lack of legitimate opportunities to achieve their goals, and the gap between success and its failure to be achieved through legitimate and illegitimate means leads to a sense of failure, defeat, and isolation that leads them to substance use (Mohseni Tabrizi, 2002: 8). Shaw and Mackey believe that the causes and occurrence of deviant behavior can be sought in social problems, the cause of which is uncontrolled migration patterns. They believe that changes in the physical structure of the city affect the social behavior of individuals (Mumtaz, 2002: 87).
Methodology
Given the sensitivity and high risk of the issue, a snowball
sampling method was used. An initial introduction to the addicted women was conducted through the police force, and then the interviews were conducted in person. All interviews were handwritten due to the participants’ unwillingness to participate, and pseudonyms were used to protect the participants’ dignity and rights. Sampling and research work in the database should proceed to the point where the researcher reaches theoretical saturation; that is, the researcher reaches a point where he or she feels that new interviews do not highlight new dimensions of the study (Talebpour and Beiranvand, 2022: 110). The target sample size was 20 addicted women who had lived experience of addiction in the Tehran metropolis. Although the researchers had reached theoretical saturation in the 14th interview, to ensure greater certainty, the interviews continued to 20 people. Most of the interviewees lived in Tehran, including regions; Shush, Molavi, Darvaze Ghar, Khavaran, Gorgan Street. To examine the validity of the research, the member validity technique was used (Strauss & Corbin, 2019: 180). For this purpose, the interviews were provided to several participants with initial codes attached so that the similarity of the categories extracted by the researcher with the participants' mindset could be compared, and in some cases, categories were modified that were different from what the participants had experienced. In some cases, the participants' ambiguities about some categories were answered. Also, to examine the reliability of the research, the technique of re-examination by professors and experts in this field and the validation of analytical comparisons was used as a criterion and benchmark for the research. The text of the initial interviews along with the extracted categories was provided to the sociology professors, and after a round-trip interaction session, a complete consensus was reached on the extracted categories.
Results
Participants were between 22 and 47 years, and their age mean was 35.55 years. Half of the interviewees were in higher education and 50 percent of them were in lower levels. The onset age range of addiction among users was from 15 to 39 years, and the average age of starting drug use was 25.4, and the average number of years of drug use of these women was 7.4 years. The drugs used by most of the study subjects were crystal meth, followed by opium and heroin. In terms of marital status, eight were divorced, five were married, and seven were single. The economic base of five was low, eight were middle class, and seven were upper class. The occupations of the study subjects included hairdressing, sales, secretarial work, prostitution, drug sales, and drug trafficking. According to the results of the research, contexts such as economic deprivation, dysfunctional family, and cultural deprivation, along with causal conditions of violence, experience of loss and high risk-taking, and intervening conditions of easy access, pure friends, and low cost of deviation, play a very significant role in the feminization of addiction. This ultimately entails consequences such as loss of social and human capital, lack of social participation, illness, social despair, and social exclusion. Meanwhile, addicted women use strategies of denial, justification, and conflict with society to prevent social exclusion.
Discussion and Conclusion
In addicted women perspective, the availability of drugs played a significant role in the feminization of addiction. Women and girls used the mechanism of denial to continue their use and justify their addiction, believing that the drugs they used were not addictive at all and were just a plant substance that transformed their immediate state and led to instant euphoria. The main consequences of women's addiction were in areas such as reduced social and human capital, reduced social participation of women, physical and mental illnesses, stigmatization and social exclusion, which caused irreparable harm to women. Most of the results of the reviewed studies were consistent with the results of the present study, in such a way that the categories obtained in the field of causal conditions, intervening conditions and, to some extent, consequences were consistent with most previous domestic and foreign studies. The findings of the research on social despair were consistent with the theories of Durkheim, Merton, and the theories of conflict theorists. These results were consistent with Talebpour (2023) and Motyka et al. (2022) findings. The category of social despair and the role of structures in women's addiction was somewhat different from the results of previous studies. Social despair and conflict with society to prevent social exclusion include the frustration of addicted women, which can turn into latent resentment against society. In times of social crises, latent resentment can lead to revenge against society in the form of vandalistic behaviors and contribute to the spread of social unrest. In order to reduce the harm caused by the feminization of addiction, it is necessary for those in charge of the matter to take serious measures on the one hand towards the treatment and rehabilitation of addicted women, and on the other hand to prevent the increase in the number of people involved in this field. Special attention should be paid to creating hope among the young generation and women, and by increasing hope for the future among the young generation, the community's leaders should prevent the increase in social despair in society, so that on the one hand the growth and dynamism of society can be maintained, and on the other hand, the eruption of accumulated anger can be prevented.
References
Ahmadi, H. (2005) Sociology of Deviance, Tehran, Samt. ISBN 9789644599378.(In Persian).
Alivardinia, A, Riahi, M,I, & Mousavi Chashmi, S,M.(2007) A Sociological Study of Delinquency: An Empirical Test of Agnew's Public Pressure Theory.. (2007) Iranian Journal of Sociology, 8(2), 75-99. (In Persian). 20.1001.1.17351901.1386.8.2.4.4.
Barabadi B, Agha'ea H, Noohi S. (2018) Identification of Factors Affecting Drug Use Tendency in Women and Model Presentation through PLS Software. Research on Addiction; 12 (45) :231-246. (In Persian). http://etiadpajohi.ir/article-1-1570-fa.html
Chen, Gila. & Gueta, Keren (2015) Child abuse, drug addiction and mental health problems of incarcerated women in Israel, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 39: 36-45.
doi: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2015.01.019. Epub 2015 Feb 3. PMID: 25660063.
Ebrahimbay Salami G, Ghaffari Zadeh M. (2009) The Relation of Social Commitment and Social Control with Addiction. Social Welfare Quarterly. 9(34), 173-186. (In Persian).
http://refahj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-1843-fa.html
Enayet H, ghafari D.(2019) Phenomenological Study of Women's Substance Abuse . Research on Addiction; 13 (51) :31-54. (In Persian).
http://etiadpajohi.ir/article-1-1917-fa.html
Faizi, I. , Alibabayi, Y. and Rahmati, M. M. (2011) The Effects of Family, Friends, and the Environment on Drug Abuse. Journal of Social Problems of Iran, 1(4) -131-150. (In Persian).
https://ijsp.ut.ac.ir/article_22699.html
Farahani, N.(2014) Explaining the context and ways in which women face drug addiction in Yazd city, Master's thesis, supervised by Professor Hossein Afrasiabi, Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Yazd University. (In Persian).
Fonseca F, Robles-Martínez M,Tirado-Muñoz J, Alías-Ferri M, Mestre-Pintó JI, Coratu AM, Torrens M. A. (2021) Gender Perspective of Addictive Disorders. Curr Addict Rep 8, 89–99.
DOI: 10.1007/s40429-021-00357-9.
Garosi, S., & Mohamadi, K. (2011) Delineation of the Lived Experiences of Drug Dependent Women. Quarterly Journal of Woman and Society, 2(5), 55-74. (In Persian).
https://jzvj.marvdasht.iau.ir/article_1209.html
Ghorbani, Majid and Ansari Talebi, Soraya (2016) "Epidemiological Research on Women's Addiction in Iran from 1995 to 2015", Social Health & Addiction, Vol. 3, No. 9. 61-90. (In Persian).
http://publisher.dchq.ir/storage/2022-01-27/9_7file%20Amadeh%20chap.pdf
Harris, M. T. H., Laks, J., Stahl, N., Bagley, S. M., Saia, K., & Wechsberg, W. M. (2022) Gender Dynamics in Substance Use and Treatment: A Women's Focused Approach. The Medical clinics of North America, 106(1), 219–234.
DOI: 10.1016/j.mcna.2021.08.007.
Hasheminejad, M.(2016) A sociological study of women's addiction in Mazandaran using the grounded theory method, Master's thesis, supervisor: Seyyed Hossein Serajzadeh, Department of Sociology, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Kharazmi University. (In Persian).
Khaledian M, Kamar Zarin H, Jalalian A. (2014) The Effectiveness of Group Cognitive Behavior Therapy on Reduction of Addicts’ Depression. Research on Addiction ; 8 (29), 77-88. (In Persian).
http://etiadpajohi.ir/article-1-609-fa.html.
Khaniki, H. (2019) Social Hope: Its Essence, Status and Etiology, Institute for Cultural and Social Studies ISBN 9786222260149. (In Persian).
Khosravani, A, Mohseni, R,A,& saborikhosroshahi, H. (2017) “Sociological Explanation of Women's addiction in Poor Neighborhoods in Arak (2017).” Journal of Socio-Cultural Changes, vol. 15, no. 4, 2019, pp. 31-47. (In Persian).
https://sanad.iau.ir/fa/Journal/aukh/Article/1075718.
Mohseni Tabrizi A.(2002) Administration of SCL 90 Scale for Depressive Disorders Among Self – Reffered Treatment – Seeking Drug Abusers in Tehran. Research on Addiction ; 1 (1)1-12. (In Persian).
http://etiadpajohi.ir/article-1-496-fa.html.
Mohsenzadeh, T. , Hashemzehi, N. and maadani, S. (2019) Analysis of Family Factors Affecting the Feminization of Addiction. journal of policing& social studies of women & family(pssw), 1397(11), 217-235. (In Persian).20.1001.1.23224274.1397.1397.11.5.9
Motyka, MA. Al-Imam A, Haligowska A, Michalak M.(2022) Helping Women Suffering from Drug Addiction: Needs, Barriers, and Challenges. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Oct 28;19(21):14039.
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192114039.
Mumtaz, F.(2002) Social Deviations: Theories and Views, First Edition, Tehran, Publishing Joint Stock Company, ISBN 9789643251109. (In Persian).
Najari, Fars (2008) "Survey of addiction in addicted women referring to addiction treatment centers in Tehran in 2005-2006",Journal of Medical Council of Iran, Volume 25, Issue 4, Pages 457-463. (In Persian).
http://jmciri.ir/article-1-1176-fa.html.
Placek, C. D., Adair, L., Jain, I., Gupta, S., Phadke, V., & Singh, M. (2025) Reconstructing Cross-Cultural Meanings of Addiction Among Women from Three Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(7), 1064.
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph22071064.
Raketić, D., Lalović, N., Barišić, J. (2025) The relationship between personality dimensions and addiction type in women addicted to alcohol and opioids. Sci Rep 15, 42050.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-25967-5.
Sadeghi Fasaei, S. & jahandar lashaki, Z. (2020) A Qualitative Study of Addiction in Women. journal of policing& social studies of women & family(pssw), 8(1), 24-43. (In Persian).
20.1001.1.23224274.1399.8.1.2.7.
Sedigh Sarvestani, R.(2008) Social Pathology (Sociology of Social Deviations), Tehran, Samt, ISBN 978-964-530-530.5. (In Persian).
Siegel, Larry J. (2016) Criminology Theories, Patterns and Typologies. Wadsworth, A división of Thomson Learning Inc.
https://archive.org/details/criminologytheor0000sieg_d9b2.
Soleimani, S.(2017) Studying the phenomenon of women's addiction in Alborz province with emphasis on causes and consequences, Master's thesis, Social Sciences Research Field, Supervisor: Masoud Golchin, Department of Sociology, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Kharazmi University. (In Persian).
Storijourk, J. (2011) Gender differences in substance use, problems, social situation and treatment, experiences among clients entering addiction treatment in Stickholm.Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 28(3),185209.
https://doi.org/10.2478/v10199-011-0020-5.
Strauss, A. & Juliet C.(2019) Fundamentals of Qualitative Research (Techniques and Steps in Grounded Theory Production), translated by Ebrahim Afshar, Tehran, Nay, ISBN 978-964-185-189-9. (In Persian).
Suarez, M. A., Bierema, W. H. (2018) Challenges and Resources Available for Mothers in Opiate Recovery: A Qualitative Study. The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy, 6 (4), Retrived from:
https://doi.org/10.15453/2168-6408p.1483.
Talebpour, A. (2023) Explaining the Impact of Social Exclusion on Tendency to Use Drugs Among Women. Women's Studies Sociological and Psychological, 21(4), 36-63. (In Persian).
doi: 10.22051/jwsps.2023.42466.2705.
Talebpour, A. (2024) The Impact of Social Exclusion on Drug Attitudes with Emphesis on Religious Lifestyle. Journal of Sociology of Lifestyle (SLS), 9(4), 18-33. (In Persian).
doi: 10.22034/sls.2025.19828.
Talebpour, A., & Beiranvand, M. (2022) Investigating the lived experience of permanent celibacy from the perspective of single girls. Quarterly Journal of Woman and Society, 13(51), 95-114. (In Persian).
doi: 10.30495/jzvj.2022.30184.3807.
UNESCO (2022) Global Monitoring Report. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000383550.
Zhian Bagheri, H.& Khojayev, M.(2021) "Women and Addiction to Substance Abuse", Studies and Research in Behavioral Sciences, Volume 3, No. 2. 8-22. (In Persian).
https://jobssar.ir/showpaper/734678.
* Corresponding Author: Associate Professor, Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences and Economics, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
a.talebpour@alzahra.ac.ir
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1644-6117
** M.A in Sociology, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
fatemeh.xxx2020@gmail.com
https://orcid.org/0009-0000-8978-7076
احمدی، حبیب (1384) جامعهشناسی انحرافات، تهران، سمت.
اشتراوس، انسلم و جولیت کوربین (1398) مبانی پژوهش کیفی (فنون و مراحل تولید نظریۀ زمینهای)، ترجمه ابراهیم افشار، تهران، نشرنی.
انصاری طالبی، ثریا و مجید قربانی (۱۳۹۵) «تحقیقات شیوعشناسی اعتیاد زنان در ایران از سال ۱۳۷۴- ۱۳۹۴»، فصلنامه سلامت اجتماعی و اعتیاد، سال سوم، شماره 9، صص 61-90.
برآبادی، باران و حکیمه آقایی و شهناز نوحی (1397) «شناسایی عوامل مؤثر بر گرایش به مواد مخدر در زنان و ارائه مدل با نرمافزارPLS »، فصلنامه علمی اعتيادپژوهي، سال دوازدهم، شماره ۴۵، صص 231-246.
خالديان، محمد و حمید کمرزرین و عسگر جلالیان (1393) «اثربخشي درمان گروهي شناختی- رفتاري بر كاهش افسردگي در افراد معتاد»، فصلنامه اعتیادپژوهی، دوره ۸، شماره ۲۹، صص 77-88.
خانیکی، هادی (1398) امید اجتماعی؛ چیستی، وضعیت و سببشناسی، پژوهشکدة مطالعات فرهنگی و اجتماعی با همکاری موسسة رحمان.
خسروشاهی، حبیب و رضاعلی محسنی (1397) «بررسی و تببین جامعهشناختی اعتیاد زنان در محلههای فرودست شهر اراک»، نشریة تغییرات اجتماعی- فرهنگی، سال پانزدهم، شماره 59، صص 31-47.
ژیان باقری، حمیده و محمد خوجهیف (1400) «زنان و اعتیاد به سوءمصرف مواد»، فصلنامه مطالعات و تحقیقات در علوم رفتاری، سال سوم، شماره 2، صص 8-22.
سلیمانی، سمیه (1396) مطالعه پدیده اعتیاد زنان در استان البرز با تأکید بر علتها و پیامدها، پایاننامه کارشناسی¬ارشد، رشته پژوهشگری علوم اجتماعی، استاد راهنما سید حسین سراجزاده، دانشکده ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه خوارزمی.
صادقی فسایی، سهیلا و زینب جهاندار (۱۳۹۹) «واکاوی علل و پیامدهای اعتیاد زنان، یک مطالعه کیفی»، پژوهشهای انتظامی اجتماعی زنان و خانواده، دوره هشتم، شماره 1، صص 24-43.
صدیق سروستانی، رحمتالله (1387) آسیبشناسی اجتماعی (جامعهشناسی انحرافات اجتماعی)، تهران، سمت.
طالب¬پور، اکبر (1402) «تبیین تأثیر طرد اجتماعی بر گرایش به مصرف مواد مخدر در بین زنان»، فصلنامه مطالعات اجتماعی روانشناختی زنان، سال سی¬ویکم، شماره 4، صص 36-63.
doi: 10.22051/jwsps.2023.42466.2705.
----------- (1403) «تأثیر طرد اجتماعی در گرایش به مصرف موادمخدر با تأکید بر سبک زندگی دینی»، جامعهشناسی سبک زندگی، سال نهم، شماره 4، صص 18-33.
doi:10.22034/sls.2025.19828.
طالبپور، اکبر و معصومه بیرانوند (1401) «بررسی تجربه زیسته تجرد قطعی از منظر دختران مجرد»، فصلنامه زن و جامعه، سال پنجاه¬ویکم، شماره 3، صص 95-114.
علیوردی نیا، اکبر و محمداسماعیل ریاحی و سیده ملیحه موسوی چاشمی (1386) «مطالعه جامعهشناختی بزهکاری: آزمون تجربی نظریه فشار عمومی آگنیو»، مجله جامعهشناسی، ایران، دوره هشتم، شماره 2، صص 83-111.
عنایت، حلیمه و داریوش غفاری (1398) «مطالعه پدیدارشناسانه بسترهای اعتیاد به مواد مخدر در زنان»، فصلنامه علمی اعتيادپژوهي، سال سیزدهم، شماره ۵۱، صص 31-54.
غفاریزاده، محمد و غلامحیدر سلامی (۱۳۸7) «رابطه تعهد و کنترل اجتماعی با اعتیاد»، فصلنامه رفاه اجتماعی، دوره نهم، شماره 34، صص 173-184.
فرحانی، نسرین (1393) تبیین زمینهها و نحوه مواجهه زنان با اعتیاد به مواد مخدر در شهر یزد، پایاننامه کارشناسی¬ارشد، استاد راهنما حسین افراسیابی، گروه جامعهشناسی، دانشکده علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه یزد.
فیضی، ایرج و یحیی علی بابایی و محمدمهدی رحمتی (1389) «بررسی تأثیر خانواده، دوستان و محله بر مصرف مواد مخدر»، مجلة بررسی مسائل اجتماعی ایران، سال اول، شمارة 4، صص 131-150.
گروسی، سعیده و خدیجه محمدی دولتآبادی (1390) «تبیین تجربه زیسته زنان وابسته به مواد مخدر از پدیده اعتیاد»، فصلنامه علمی- پژوهشی جامعهشناسی زنان، سال دوم، شماره اول، صص 55-74.
ممتاز، فریده (1381) انحرافات اجتماعی نظریهها و دیدگاهها، تهران، شرکت سهامی انتشار.
محسنی تبریزی، علیرضا (1383) «افسردگی و اعتیاد: کاربرد مقیاس SCL90 در سنجش میزان افسردگی معتادان خودمعرف به مراکز اعتیاد و بازپروری»، فصلنامه اعتیادپژوهی دوره ۱، شماره ۱، صص 1-12.
محمدپور، احمد ( ۱۴۰۰) ضدِ روش، زمینه های فلسفی و رویههای عملی در روششناسی کیفی، چاپ چهارم، تهران، لوگوس.
معدنی، سعید و طاهره محسنزاده (1397) «تحلیل عوامل خانوادگی مؤثر بر زنانه شدن اعتیاد»، پژوهشهای انتظامی- اجتماعی زنان و خانواده، دوره ششم، شماره 2، صص 217-25.
نجاری، فارس (۱۳۸7) «بررسی اعتیاد در زنان معتاد مراجعهکننده به مراکز ترک اعتیاد تهران در سال ۸۴ تا ۸۵»، مجله علمی سازمان نظام پزشکی جمهوری اسلامی ایران، دوره بیستوپنجم، شماره 4، صفحه 457-۴63.
هاشمینژاد، مهدیه (1395) مطالعه جامعهشناختی اعتیاد زنان در مازندران به روش نظریه زمینهای، پایاننامه کارشناسی¬ارشد، استاد راهنما سیدحسین سراجزاده، گروه جامعهشناسی، دانشکده ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه خوارزمی.
Chen, Gila. & Gueta, Keren (2015) Child abuse, drug addiction and mental health problems of incarcerated women in Israel, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 39: 36-45.
Fonseca, F., Robles-Martínez, M., Tirado-Muñoz, J. María Alías-Ferri. & et al. (2021) A Gender Perspective of Addictive Disorders. Curr Addict Rep 8, 89–99.
Harris, M. T. H., Laks, J., Stahl, N., Bagley, S. M., Saia, K., & Wechsberg, W. M. (2022) Gender Dynamics in Substance Use and Treatment: A Women's Focused Approach. The Medical clinics of North America, 106(1), 219–234.
Motyka, MA. Al-Imam A, Haligowska A, Michalak M. (2022) Helping Women Suffering from Drug Addiction: Needs, Barriers, and Challenges. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Oct 28;19(21):14039.
Placek, C. D., Adair, L., Jain, I., Gupta, S., Phadke, V., & Singh, M. (2025) Reconstructing Cross-Cultural Meanings of Addiction Among Women from Three Countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(7), 1064.
Raketić, D., Lalović, N., Barišić, J. (2025) The relationship between personality dimensions and addiction type in women addicted to alcohol and opioids. Sci Rep 15, 42050.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-25967-5.
Siegel, Larry J. (1988) Criminology Theories, Patterns and Typologies. Wadsworth, A división of Thomson Learning Inc. Web: http://www.thomsonrights.com.
Storijourk, J. (2011) Gender differences in substance use, problems, social situation and treatment, experiences among clients entering addiction treatment in Stickholm.Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 28(3),185209 .
Suarez, M. A., Bierema, W. H. (2018) Challenges and Resources Available for Mothers in Opiate Recovery: A Qualitative Study. The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy, 6 (4), Retrived from
. https://doi.org/10.15453/2168-6408p.1483.
UNESCO (2022) Global Monitoring Report. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.